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This page last reviewed July 15, 2008
We provide
here a short literature review from a broad spectrum of voices
including governments, environmentalists, business and academia. We
present this merely to further the discussion
on the potential environmental (i.e., "green") benefits of Open Source
Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)
as it relates to hardware refresh cycles.
If machines
can be run longer before being tossed, that is probably a good
thing for the environment. Although it seems reasonable that Linux
boxes might run longer than machines running
some other operating systems, all else being equal, there is scant hard
evidence for this, that we can find. Although
we have received anecdotal evidence, we have yet to find the definitive
study on this issue. If you know of interesting
citations regarding the potential green effects of OSS/FS, let
us know.
But first of all;
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A.
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Is
there a problem with the disposal of computers?
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1
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"...
concern is growing globally about how to manage the volumes of ICT
(information and communication technologies) equipment. These products
historically have relatively short life spans, and end-of-life
management is an important tool towards minimizing the volume of
products being sent to landfills. Other options, such as reusing,
remanufacturing, and recycling, exist and need to be promoted. (p.17)
ICT products, especially computers, create extensive environmental
damage in numerous forms throughout their life cycles. There are large
uses and management of toxic substances needed to produce electronic
products and their components; the batteries and electricity needed to
power them over their rapidly obsolescent lives also cause
environmental impacts. A trend towards even smaller, harder-ro-recycle
products will only intensify the environmental problems." (p.37)
Kluwer Academic Publishers - Computers in the Environment:
Understanding and Managing Their Impacts (2003)
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2
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"A preliminary report on the
results of recent toxicity testing on laptop computers and liquid
crystal display (LCD) desktop computer monitors indicate that these
devices contain hazardous levels of copper and lead."
California
Department of Toxic Substances Control - SB20 Testing Results for LCD
Monitors and Laptop Computers
(prelininary fact sheet March, 2004) or the full final
report (December, 2004)
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3
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California's
Airborne Toxic Control Measure (ATCM) for Emissions of Toxic Metals
from Non-ferrous Metal Melting (Metal Melting ATCM) adopted in 1993
regulates emissions from facilities that melt certain metals including
lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, aluminum, and their alloys.
"ARB staff evaluated the current control requirements and exemption
levels contained in the Metal Melting ATCM and found that these
requirements were adequate to protect public health, particularly
infants and children, and the emissions from these facilites would not
pose a significant cancer or non-cancer health risk. Therefore, no
revisions to the existing Metal Melting ATCM are recommended at this
time."
California Air Resources Board - Senate Bill 25 (Children's
Environmental Health) Required Review of Non-ferrous Metal Melting
Airborne Toxic Control Measure for Lead Effects (April, 2004)
"Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs) are common fire retardants that have been used in various foams
and electronics applications. Recently, there have been increasing
concerns about the safety of exposure to these chemicals....there are
significant structural similarities between PBDEs and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), which are known to exert adverse health impacts.
"The results of this research
demonstrated methods for collecting and analyzing air samples with a
great degree of sensitivity for PBDEs in indoor and near-source ambient
air. The results also suggest that the impacts of the electronics
recycling and automotive shredding operations on near-source downwind
concentrations could be measured and compared with upwind
concentrations. These near-source results and the results from the
indoor monitoring at the electronics recycling facility also point to
the need to further evaluate the health effects from exposure to PBDEs."
Califonia Air Resources Board - Near-Source Ambient Air
Monitoring of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (October 2005)
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4
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California's
Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has determined
that lead, among other toxic air contaminants, should be included
within its Prioritization
of Toxic Air Contaminants - Children's Environmental Health Protection
Act. In this final report, OEHHA describes a variety of
health related issues associated with this pollutant.
OEHHA -
Prioritization
of Toxic Air Contaminants - Children's Environmental Health Protection
Act - Final Report (October, 2001)
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5
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"Why Prevent Electronics Waste?
"Over 20 million personal computers became obsolete in 1998. Only 13
percent were reused or recycled. Many municipalities are facing the
dilemma of what to do with growing amounts of retired electronics.
Rapid changes in computer technology and the emergence of new
electronic gadgets exacerbate the problem. There are hazardous
materials, such as lead, mercury, and hexavalent chromium, in circuit
boards, batteries, and color cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Televisions and
CRT monitors contain four pounds of lead, on average (the exact amount
depends on size and make). Mercury from electronics has been cited as a
leading source of mercury in municipal waste. In addition, brominated
flame retardants are commonly added to plastics used in electronics. If
improperly handled, these toxics can be released into the environment
through incinerator ash or landfill leachate."
U.S. EPA - Electronics: A New Opportunity
for Waste Prevention, Reuse, and Recycling (June, 2001)
(http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/elec_fs.pdf) - Site expired
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6
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"Each
year in California hundreds of thousands of computers, monitors,
copiers, fax machines, printers, televisions, and other electronic
items become "obsolete" in the eyes of consumers. Rapid advances in
technology and an expanding demand for new features accelerate the
generation of "old" electronic equipment ("e-waste"). The result is a
growing challenge for businesses, residents, and local governments as
they search for ways to reuse, recycle, or properly dispose of this
equipment."
California
Integrated Waste Management Board - Electronic
Product Management (updated periodically)
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7
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"Why
focus on computers? While it is well known that
the high-tech revolution has radically transformed late 20th century
civilization, it is less well known that high tech development also
harms people's health as well as the environment that sustains all
life. The dark side of high technology reveals polluted drinking water
and birth defects, waste discharges that harm fish and wildlife and
high rates of miscarriages and cancer clusters among workers. The high
tech electronics industry uses vast amounts of dangerous chemicals and
significantly depletes natural resources to fuel its global expansion
and rapidly changing product lines. There are few other products for
which the sum of the environmental impacts of raw material extraction,
industrial refining and production, use and disposal is so extensive."
Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition - Why Focus on Computers?
(Updated periodically)
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8
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"Work-related
cancers and toxic emissions have eroded the high-tech industry's clean
reputation. New European Union rules banning heavy metals and requiring
manufactureres to take back discarded computers could set a new global
standard."
Yes - High Tech Goes Green (Spring, 2003)
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B.
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Recycling old computers and
other electronic waste
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There is no shortage of
websites with an interest in this subject. Here is a sampling.
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1
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The U.S
EPA is much involved in the recycling of computers as it notes an
estimated 7% of all computer purchases are done by the U.S. government.
A December 29, 2004 news brief, noted that:
"An
estimated 10,000 machines per week are disposed of according to the
EPA. EPA has awarded its first contracts to help all federal agencies
in the environmentally responsible disposal of computers and other used
electronic equipment. Called Government Wide Acquisition Contracts
(GWACs) for Recycling Electronics and Asset Disposition (READ)
services, they provide federal agencies with a dependable method of
properly recycling and disposing of excess or obsolete electronic
equipment".
For more information on the READ program . (Updated periodically)
U.S. EPA's Electronics:
A new Opportunity for Waste Prevention, Reuse, and Recycling
(June, 2001) is a
good place to start in studying this issue. EPA's definitive document
on "Electronics Reuse and Recycling" appears to be its October 2000 WasteWise Update
(October, 2000). There
is much good information in this easy-read document including a large
list of major recycling strategies with helpful descriptions of their
website contents. There are even links to free computers on the Web.
EPA is working to increase the number of consumer electronic devices
collected and safely recycled in the United States under a program
called "Plug-In To eCycling." Plug-In is one component of EPA's
Resource Conservation Challenge, a national effort to find flexible,
yet more protective ways to conserve our valuable resources.
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2
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The
California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB) is also involved
with the disposition of computers. Please view CIWMB's website on electronics (Updated periodically)
including its own Electronic Product Management
Directory (Updated continuously).
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3
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In
Carnegie Mellon University's 1997 (updated into a case study in
August 1999 ) study, we are told that "A widely cited 1991 study
predicted that nearly 150 million personal computers (PCs) would be
sent to landfills by 2005. Taking into consideration newer end-of-life
disposition options now available, the general premise of the original
study is reconsidered. Many fewer computers are being sent to
landfills, as many more are being recycled as markets for used
computers and electronic equipment develop. Many are still being
stored, despite the unprofitable nature of storage. The updated model
suggests that nearly 150 million computers will be recycled in 2005 -
the same number initially predicted to be landfilled. Instead, we
predict that only 55 million will be landfilled. In addition, the
equivalent of 15 million PCs will be landfilled from the unused
portions of the 150 million recycled computers. In essence, the
computers sentenced to death in landfills in 1991 have been given a
second life in newly established recycled electronic goods markets."
Carnegie Mellon University
- Disposition and End-of-Life
Options for Personal Computers (July,
1997)
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4
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"Increasing
interest in the Linux operating system is helping to avert ecological
mayhem from old PCs, it has emerged. A report in today's Nikkei
Business Daily said that a non profit Japanese organisation will
install the Linux OS on old computers and pass them on to schools and
to social welfare organisations after cleaning old data on the hard
drives."
The Inquirer - Linux OS Helps to Green the
Planet (May, 2003)
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5
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"Six
computer and electronics companies today won plaudits for good
environmental business practices from Portfolio 21, a mutual fund in
Portland, Oregon .... Henninger said the ... companies embody three
manufacturing trends: no net contribution to global warming,;
environmetric, or "green" accounting; and cradle-to-landfill
responsibility for products. The six computer companies are: Advanced
Micro Devices Inc. , Dell Inc., Hewlett-Packard Co., IBM Corp.,
STMicroelectronics, and Xerox .... the fund's sustainability analyst
cited Dell, HP, IBM and Xerox for lifecycle stewardship of their
products."
Government Computer News - Computer Makers Clean Up Their
Manufacturing-- LINK EXPIRED (January, 2005)
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6
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"Disposition companies can determine the right
blend of reuse versus refuse. Redeployment is highly cost-effective,
but the asset will have to be relatively new to be useful in a
production environment. Many companies redeploy old systems as solid
little Linux servers."
CSO
(i.e., Chief Security Officer) Online - How
to Get Rid of Old Computers: A Practical Overview of the Process of
Extending—or Extinguishing—the Life of Old Systems
(December, 2005)
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C.
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Interesting OSS/FS - based
solutions are entering into the discussion on how to reduce the harmful
effects of electronic equipment disposal around the world. Some
solutions seem to rely, in part, on extending the lifespan of equipment.
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1
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"One of the benefits frequently put forward for
the use of Open Source Software is the level of resources needed to
support it. This means that for equivalent Open Source and Microsoft
Windows systems, the Open Source system will require less memory and a
slower processor speed for the same functionality.
Open Source operating systems such as Linux do not usually have the
regular major upgrades that are a feature of Windows, and thus do not
have the requirement that goes with these upgrades for a new or
upgraded computer to run them. This means that a computer running Linux
can have a significantly longer working life than an equivalent
computer running Windows. This has the potential to impact
significantly on costs, including purchase of software and hardware,
and indirectly by reducing business disruption whilst implementing
change and upgrading. There are also potential Green Agenda benefits,
through reducing the energy and resources consumed in manufacturing
replacement equipment, and reducing landfill requirements and costs
arising from disposal of redundant equipment.
Industry observers quote a typical hardware refresh period for
Microsoft Windows systems as 3-4 years; a major UK manufacturing
organisation quotes its hardware refresh period for Linux systems as
6-8 years."
United Kingdom
Office of Government Commerce - Open
Source Software Trials - Final Report (October, 2004)
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2
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"Computers
pre-installed with Windows, for instance, may migrate to Linux due to
various reasons. Old computers can often be reused with Linux and open
source software, rather than a costly upgrade to a newer version of
proprietary operating system and applications, and the hardware
requirements can be much lower for open source products."
FLOSS - Infonomics
- Free/Libre and Open Source
Software - Final Report Part 2B: Open Source Software in the Public
Sector: Policy within the European Union (see Section 3) (June, 2002)
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3
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"Economics
does not dictate the frequency of upgrading in the OpenOffice
alternative. At the same time, Open Office does not impose any major
system requirements, and can therefore be used on relatively old
machines. Replacement of thin clients/PCs every six years is therefore
included in the calculations."
"In an alternative with OpenOffice, licenses do not have to be paid
for, and at the same time OpenOffice is expected to make fewer demands
on the equipment, so that the PC's have an economic life-span of six
years."
European Commission IDA - Danish Board of Technology -
Open Source Software in e-government (Pages 43,46) (October, 2002)
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4
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"The
idea of 'Linux Ecology' is captivating both for its
own merits as a way to protect the environment by conserving computer
related resources and facilitating education, but also because of the
very nature of Linux as an inherently democratic, decentralized,
participatory system. Linux is free, open-source and possibly one of
the most stable, efficient, adaptive and versatile operating systems
ever devised, thus gaining wide and very loyal following. As such, it
can serve both as an actual tool and as a symbol/example of the ideals
of sustainability."
"Since it does not require big
hardware,
Linux may be used with old computers to make their life cycle longer.
Games may be used in environmental education and software is available
to simulate ecological processes. Though computers can be seen as part
of environmental pollution, there are also ways to use computers in a
more reasonable manner to help protect the environment."
Linux HOW TO
- Linux Ecology HOWTO
(February, 2003)
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5
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"There
are two ways to use Linux on the desktop: as the usual system with a
complete installed operating system and applications; or as a thin
client....In a thin client scenario, all user data and applications
reside on a server, and are transmitted to the user via a special
graphics session. Backups and most system administration tasks need
only be performed on the server, saving a significant amount of
adminstration time. In other cases, older PCs can be reused as a means
to cut costs, since the hardware requirements are less than would be
required for a Windows upgrade. (p. 247)
"The Linux Terminal Server Project (http://ltsp.org/) provides a set of tools to
implement an inexpensive Linux-based thin client solution for
desktops....The Linux Terminal Server Project has come a long way in a
short time, and won the "Best Open Source Project" award at Linux World
2003 in San Francisco. Because it provided the ability to make good use
of aging PC hardware, the project also received the 2003 National
Recycling Coalitions's "Outstanding Recycling Product or Process
Award." (pp.
163-64)
mwinslow@mandrake.com - The Practical Manager's Guide
to Open Source (August 2004)
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6
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"We
designed our 1-Box software to bring affordable and
environmentally-friendly computing to the world. Currently, less than
three percent of the world's population owns a computer, yet computer
hardware disposal is becoming one of the fastest growing threats to our
environment. Who would have thought a software product, such as 1-Box, could reduce the environmental
impact
of computing by as much as ninety percent?" (What are the environmental
implications of adopting 1-Box™?
LinuxPR
- Environmental Friendly
Computer Treats One Computer as Ten (November, 2004)
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7
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"Free Geek routes a computer
one of two ways depending upon its chip technology. 386s and below,
plus old Macs, are checked for still viable components and then broken
up for delivery to metals and plastics recyclers. 486s on up (and newer
Macs) are checked out, rebuilt, and serviced as needed. These machines
are either given to volunteers who have completed 18 hours of service
at Free Geek or offered to nonprofit organizations."
Franklin, Beedle &
Associates - The "Green" Operating System:
Linux (No Date)
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8
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"One
notable feature of Linux is its modest (by comparison with other UNIX
and Microsoft operating systems) hardware requirements - which allows
it to run on older hardware configurations."
QinetiQ
-
Analysis
of the Impact of Open Source Software - (see Section 1.3.1)
(October, 2001)
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"OSS/FS can often use older
hardware more efficiently than proprietary systems, yielding smaller
hardware costs and sometimes eliminating the need for new hardware.
OSS/FS runs faster on faster hardware, of course, but many OSS/FS
programs can use older hardware more efficiently than proprietary
systems, resulting in lower hardware costs - and in some cases
requiring no new costs (because "discarded" systems can suddenly be
used again). For example, the minimum
requirements for Microsoft Windows 2000 Server (according to Microsoft)
<http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/server/evaluation/sysreqs/default.asp> are a Pentium-compatible CPU
(133 MHz or higher), 128 MiB of RAM minimum (with 256MiB the
"recommended minimum"), and a 2 GB hard drive with at least 1.0 GB
free. According to Red Hat, Red Hat Linux 7.1 (a common distribution of
GNU/Linux) requires at a minimum an i486 (Pentium-class recommended),
32MiB RAM (64MiB recommended), and 650MB hard disk space (1.2 GB
recommended).
In Scientific
American’s August 2001 issue, the article The
Do-It-Yourself Supercomputer
<http://www.sciam.com/2001/0801issue/0801hargrove.html> discusses how the researchers
built a powerful computing platform with many discarded computers and
GNU/Linux. The result was dubbed the "Stone Soupercomputer"; by May
2001 it contained 133 nodes, with a theoretical peak performance of 1.2
gigaflops."
dwheeler.com - Why Open Source Software /
Free Software? Look at the Numbers! (see Section 7. Total Cost of
Ownership (TCO) item #4) (February 8, 2005)
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10
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"The hardware costs fall since open-Source
Software uses resources very sparingly, and therefore hardware can
usually be used longer. The software costs fall to the degree that OSS
is used. However, it should be noted that when graphical user
interfaces are used, and also with Linux, certain hardware requirements
should be met since otherwise it is not possible to work at high
speed....Older equipment still can be used as network servers because
of the resource-saving characteristics since the server does not
necessarily need a graphical interface. There are broad areas for use,
in particular with slower external interfaces (e.g., ISDN selection
connections for fax and e-mail). Here, the characteristics of Linux or
FreeBSD that the systems provide excellent support for older hardware
proves to be an advantage."
"The hardware can be used for longer because the operating
systems use its resources sparingly. This means that OSS operating
systems offer a further cost advantage."
Open-Source
Software in the Federal Administration - (see section 2. Equipment on
Classical PCs), and secondly, the section entitled: "Longer Hardware
Use" (February, 2000)
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11
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"Microsoft lately has been challenging Linux's
suitability for older hardware, so it seems like a good time to look at
Linux distributions that can run on older machines. I took six
distributions for a test run on an old machine, and also tried software
that turns old hardware into a thin client. The bottom line: Linux is
still quite suitable for older hardware. It might not turn your aging
PC into a powerhouse, but it will extend its lifespan considerably."
NewsForge.com
- Linux
Distros for Older Hardware (February
24, 2006)
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12
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"Sun’s claims for the environmental benefits of
thin clients have to be considered in terms of the additional server
capacity required by this model, but thin-client computing is also
enjoying something of a resurgence, in large part thanks to Linux. Late
last year, car hire firm Europcar International migrated thousands of
PCs across Europe from Windows fat clients to Linux thin clients,
lowering both its hardware and maintenance costs. A recent IDC report
suggested that Linux-based thin clients have reached about 20 percent
of the total thin-client market."
ZDNetUK
- Sun
Pushes Environmental Benefits of Thin Clients (May
4, 2005)
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D.
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Further Discussion
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Although it seems reasonable
that Linux boxes might run longer than machines running some other
operating systems, all else being equal, there is scant hard evidence
for this, that we can find. Although we have received anecdotal
evidence, we have yet to find the definitive study on this issue. We
continue to solicit such benchmark evidence. ARB may be able to compile
some data on this, but this sampling would be too small to add much to
this discussion. For now, we are faced with the argument that machines
are replaced not because they wear out, but rather because vendors
cease their support of these boxes and/or the software running on them
thereby necessitating turnover.
Environmental disposal costs of electronic appliance stockpiles is
growing. Reducing hardware refresh requirements and recycling old
computers mitigates some of these costs. Using open source software can
extend the lifespan of hardware for many applications thereby helping
to reduce waste. Although the resulting green effect may not, by
itself, sway many computer users to consider OSS/FS, it adds yet
another rationale for such a migration.
If you would like us to set a link to another citation re: the
potential "green effects" of OSS/FS or non-OSS/FS, please let us know.
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The Potential
Green Effects of Going Open Source
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